2023 – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Dec 20, 2023

Using AWS Snowball Edge – Addressing Disconnected Scenarios with AWS Snow Family

There is no longer a division between AWS Snowball and AWS Snowball Edge. Now, all such devices fall under the AWS Snowball Edge line, even if their intended use case is a straightforward data migration to S3.

There are four configurations with which an AWS Snowball Edge device can be ordered (see Figure 4.1):

	Storage Optimized w/80 TB	Compute Optimized Type 1	Compute Optimized Type 2 1 1 At the time of writing, this variant is limited to US-based regions only	Compute Optimized w/GPU
HDD in TB	80	39.5	39.5	39.5
SSD in TB	1	7.68	0	7.68
NVME in TB	0	0	28	0
VCPUs	24	52	104	52
VRAM in GB	80	208	416	208
GPU type	None	None	None	NVIDIA V100
10 Gbit RJ45	1	2	2	2
25 Gbit SFP	1	1	1	1
100 Gbit QSFP	1	1	1	1
Volume (in3)	5381	5381	5381	5381
Weight (lbs)	47	47	47	47
Power draw (avg)	304 w	304 w	304 w	304 w
Power draw (max)	1200 w	1200 w	1200 w	1200 w
Voltage range	100-240 v	100-240 v	100-240 v	100-240 v

Table 4.1 – Comparison of AWS Snowball Edge variants

The AWS Snowball Edge Storage Optimized variant is now used for data migrations in place of the old AWS Snowball. There is a local S3 endpoint to which files can be directly copied using AWS OpsHub, the AWS Command Line Interface (AWS CLI), or direct API commands from a script.

The local compute capacity can be used to host an AWS DataSync instance, an AWS Tape Gateway instance, an AWS File Gateway instance, or another instance that provides a different type of loading interface of your choosing.

Migrating data to the cloud

Table 4.2 illustrates how long migrations of varying sizes would take depending upon the network throughput:

	50 Mbps	100 Mbps	1 Gbps	2 Gbps	5 Gbps	10 Gbps	25 Gbps	40 Gbps	100 Gbps
50 Terabytes	3.3 months	1.7 months	5 days	2.5 days	1 day	12 hours	5 hours	3 hours	1 hour
500 Terabytes	2.8 years	1.4 years	1.7 months	25 days	10 days	5 days	2 days	1.25 days	12 hours
5 Petabytes	28.5 years	14.3 years	1.4 years	8.5 months	3.4 months	1.7 months	20 days	12 days	5 days
10 Petabytes	57 years	28.5 years	2.8 years	1.4 years	6.8 months	3.4 months	1.3 months	24 days	10 days

Table 4.2 – Comparison of migration times

Many organizations don’t have high-throughput internet connections that could be fully dedicated to migration. Nor do they have access to/familiarity with the techniques needed to fully utilize said connection once the latency gets above a few milliseconds.

This is why loading one or more devices connected to a local network and physically shipping to AWS is so popular – despite the days on either end the devices spend on a truck:

Figure 4.2 – An AWS Snowball Edge device being loaded with data

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Nov 19, 2023

Introduction to the AWS Snow Family – Addressing Disconnected Scenarios with AWS Snow Family

In today’s interconnected world, reliable connectivity is often taken for granted. However, there are numerous scenarios where maintaining a consistent network connection is a challenge, such as remote locations, disaster-stricken areas, or environments with limited or intermittent network access. In these disconnected scenarios, organizations require a solution that can ensure data availability, enable efficient data processing, and one that will support critical operations. This is where the AWS Snow Family comes into play, providing a range of robust and versatile solutions designed specifically to address the unique requirements of disconnected environments.

In this chapter, we will explore how the AWS Snow Family empowers organizations to overcome the limitations of disconnected scenarios and seamlessly bridge the gap between on-premises infrastructure and the cloud. We will delve into the features and capabilities of AWS Snow Family offerings and discuss their use cases, benefits, and considerations. Whether it’s securely transferring large amounts of data, performing on-site data processing and analysis, or extending cloud services to the edge, the AWS Snow Family offers reliable, scalable, and cost-effective solutions that cater to the needs of disconnected environments. Join us as we discover the power of AWS Snow to enable data-driven decision-making and unlock new possibilities in disconnected scenarios.

Here are the main headings:

Introduction to the AWS Snow Family

Using AWS Snowball Edge

Using AWS Snowcone

Introduction to the AWS Snow Family

The original AWS Snowball service was introduced in 2015. It started out as a mechanism to move large amounts of data when doing so over the network wasn’t reasonable. In the ensuing years, customer demand for new capabilities has driven the expansion of this line into different variants with use-case-specific capabilities:

Figure 4.1 – AWS Snow Family devices

All offer an interface and operating model that is consistent with Amazon EC2 and Amazon S3, and they are all designed to run autonomously. All AWS Snow Family devices operate their own local control, management, and data planes. Thus, they do not require a consistent network connection back to the AWS cloud to operate.

AWS Snow Family devices can all host local object storage buckets that utilize the same API/CLI interface as Amazon S3 buckets. When a customer orders one, it is sent to them, they copy their data to these local buckets, and then they ship the unit back to AWS. This is facilitated by an e-ink display on the unit that eliminates the need to pack it in a box or obtain a shipping label separately. When the device is received by AWS, the data is uploaded to the relevant “real version” of the Amazon S3 bucket in question.

Additionally, AWS Snow Family devices do not have the same restrictive environmental requirements as most off-the-shelf compute and storage hardware. AWS Snow Family devices are found operating in a wide variety of field situations that would be impractical with standard off-the-shelf servers. First responders heading to the site of a disaster can even check them in as luggage.

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Oct 29, 2023

Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Contemporaneously with the rollout of the US’s GPS, the Soviet Union began deployment of a similar system known as GLONASS. The first satellite was launched in 1982 and has continued to be developed by the Russian Federation and operated by Roscosmos. Due to economic constraints in the 1990s/2000s followed by sanction-related obstacles in the 2010s, GLONASS has faced numerous challenges. However, it remains operational and available for anyone to use.

Compared to GPS, GLONASS is less accurate on average (though only slightly). That said, due to the different configuration of its orbits, GLONASS is a bit more accurate than GPS at high latitudes (such as within the Arctic or Antarctic circles).

Galileo

Created by the European Union via the European Space Agency, Galileo is a multinational effort to operate a global positioning system that provides independence from single-country control as is seen with GPS and GLONASS. The system went live in 2016 and currently operates 30 satellites in MEO.

At the time of writing, Galileo is the most accurate of the three global systems for the average user.

Regional and augmentation systems

In addition to the three global systems, there are a few regional and augmentation systems. These include the following:

Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS): Operated by Japan, QZSS uses a combination of satellites in geostationary and highly elliptical orbits to augment GPS, improving performance for terminals in Japan and the surrounding region.

Navigation Indian Constellation (NAVIC): Deployed by India, NAVIC uses a handful of geostationary satellites to improve performance for GPS terminals in South Asia.

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS): The US Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) operates three satellites in geostationary orbit to improve navigation for civilian aircraft in North America.

European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS): A distinct system from Galileo, EGNOS is a set of three geostationary satellites that augment GPS for European users. Future plans include the ability to augment the Galileo system as well.

Other uses for GNSS

When a very precise clock source is needed that is accurate down to nanoseconds, expensive atomic clocks are one approach. However, because GNSS satellites have one or more atomic clocks onboard, their signals can be used to indirectly gain access to a free atomic clock. For example, 5G NFV functions, or virtual machines running a Software-Defined Radio (SDR) application require access to a physical clock. Network Time Protocol (NTP) or Precision Time Protocol (PTP) servers frequently save money by making use of GNSS signals.

Summary

In this chapter, we introduced you to elements that are common to all wireless communication technologies that are used at the far edge – concepts such as wavelength, frequency, duplexing, modulation, multipathing, and antenna design.

We built upon that by diving into cellular networking technologies such as 4G/LTE and 5G, reviewing the key advantages of 5G networks and how they enable new low-latency/high-throughput use cases. You were given a survey of LPWAN technologies such as LoRaWAN and NB-IoT, both of which are crucial to use cases such as smart agriculture, V2X, and smart cities.

Finally, we discussed the basics needed to understand SATCOM technologies and the services based on them – upon which the most remote edge computing use cases are dependent.

In the next chapter, we will cover the AWS Snow family of services. These target remote/disconnected edge compute situations.

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Sep 1, 2023

GEOMETRIC DILUTION OF PRECISION (GDOP) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

GDOP is a calculated value that combines the impact of several factors related to the angle at which the ground station can reach the satellites into a single coefficient that expresses how accurate a calculated position is.

Referring back to the previous figure, we can see an example of good geometry of the satellites involved. They are spread across the sky in all three axes. Contrast that with the following situation. In this case, the user is in an area surrounded by mountains. The terminal has no choice but to use samples from satellites that are closer together in the sky, and the calculated position will be less accurate as a result:

Figure 3.43 – Poor geometry due to obstructions

Other sources of GNSS inaccuracy

Atmospheric refraction is when a satellite’s signal is bent a little while traveling through the upper layers of the atmosphere. Sunspot activity can cause interference. Lower-quality receivers are more susceptible to measurement noise, which can happen even under perfect environmental conditions. A clock error of 1 nanosecond (a billionth of a second) can introduce as much as half a meter (1.5 feet) of imprecision.

Urban environments pose a particular challenge to GNSSs. Not only is the geometry compromised by buildings, but the signals the user can receive are often reflected off of them – causing unwanted multipath propagation as previously discussed. If you’ve ever requested a ride from an app on your phone and wondered why the driver thinks you’re at a restaurant two streets away, these are likely culprits.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The first satellite for what we now know as GPS was launched in 1978 by the United States Air Force. At first, only the US military had access to the system.

In 1983, pilots of a commercial flight from Alaska to Korea made a navigational error that took their aircraft over the Kamchatka Peninsula near Japan. In response, a Soviet SU-15 interceptor shot down the Boeing 747, killing all 269 civilians onboard. To prevent future incidents, the US opened GPS for civilian use.

As of 2020, GPS is operated by the United States Space Force and remains open for anyone to use. At the time of writing, it has 32 satellites in a semi-synchronous 21 medium Earth orbit (MEO) with an altitude of 20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles). Each orbit has a different inclination, providing global ground coverage.

21 A semi-synchronous orbit is one in which the spacecraft passes over a given point on the Earth twice per day.

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Aug 7, 2023

LOW-EARTH ORBIT (LEO) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

LEO satellites are positioned in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of up to 2,000 kilometers (1,200 miles). Because of this, they are in constant motion relative to an observer.

LEO satellites are known for their ability to provide coverage over a large area of the Earth’s surface since they orbit the Earth relatively quickly (compared to GEO satellites). This allows them to provide communication and other services to a large number of users, as well as to track the movement of objects on the surface of the Earth.

The primary technical advantage of LEO-based SATCOM systems is their much lower latency than GEO (as low as ~20ms RTT). The main disadvantage is caused by the fact that they are in constant motion concerning any given point on the ground. They must use mechanisms such as motorized tracking antennas (or complex phased-array antennas) and constellations of a sufficient size to ensure users on the ground can always reach at least one satellite.

Here are some examples of LEO-based SATCOM services:

Certus 700: An L-band service from Iridium that supports speeds as high as 704 Kbps. It is served by 66 cross-linked satellites in LEO.

Starlink Roam: A Ka/Ku-band service from Starlink that supports speeds up to 200 Mbps. It is served by over 3,500 20 cross-linked satellites in LEO, with plans to grow to as many as 12,000.

20 As of February, 2023.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

GNSS is an overarching term that includes all of the systems that use timing signals from satellite constellations to determine a position on the ground for navigation purposes.

GNSS for positioning

Trilateration

All satellite-based navigation systems discussed in this section determine a terminal’s position using trilateration. Unlike triangulation, it measures distance – not angles. Satellites in these systems repeatedly broadcast their current position and local time, derived from multiple onboard atomic clocks.

The following figure demonstrates a point on the ground receiving the same broadcast from four satellites:

Figure 3.42 – Trilateration using four satellites

From these four pieces of data, a terminal can calculate its position within a margin of error that varies from centimeters to hundreds of meters, depending on the circumstances.

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Jul 26, 2023

Satellite orbits – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Geostationary orbit (GEO)

GEO satellites are positioned in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of about 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles). They are designed to remain in a fixed location relative to a point on the Earth’s surface as they orbit the Earth at the same rate that the Earth rotates.

This makes things easy for ground-based users. There are mobile apps that will tell you exactly where in the sky to point your antenna, and then you’re done:

Figure 3.41 – GEO satellite distance

The downside is the high latency incurred when signals have to travel that far. The speed of light is fast, but it is finite. ~200 milliseconds are required for light to go from one spot on the earth up to the GEO satellite and another 200 to go down to another spot. Factor in the latency of any ground segment and a 600ms RTT is considered typical.

Here are some typical GEO-based SATCOM data services:

Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN): This is an L-band service from Inmarsat. It can achieve speeds up to 492kbps for standard IP data traffic and up to 800kbps for streaming data (usually video), although this depends heavily upon the terminal involved. Six geostationary satellites are involved in providing global coverage (including polar regions) for this service. It is extremely reliable, supporting a 99.9% uptime SLA.

Global Xpress (GX): This is a Ka-band service from Inmarsat. It can achieve download speeds up to 50mbps and 5mbps speeds for upload. Five geostationary satellites provide near-global coverage.

European Aviation Network (EAN): This is a hybrid service comprised of a single Inmarsat S-band satellite in geostationary orbit above Europe and Vodafone’s terrestrial 4G/LTE network. Specifically built to provide data services onboard aircraft in European airspace, data rates as high as 100mbps are supported. Aircraft use the terrestrial network below 10,000 feet and switch to the S-band service above this altitude.

ViaSat-3: This is a Ka-band service that uses a constellation of three geostationary satellites operated by ViaSat. Each satellite serves a specific region (AMER, EMEA, or APAC), and has a total network capacity greater than 1 terabit per second. Typical consumer plans are 100mbps, while contracts for defense and commercial entities can be higher.

GEO HTS: This is a Ku-band service from SES that can achieve speeds up to 10mbps. It has near-global coverage using four satellites in geostationary orbit.

FlexGround: This is a Ku-band service from Intelsat that supports download speeds up to 10mbps and 3mbps upload speeds. Being one of the pioneers in SATCOM 19, Intelsat has over 50 satellites in geostationary orbit.

19 Intelsat launched its first satellite in 1965.

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May 15, 2023

Integrating SATCOM – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Satellite communication (SATCOM)

SATCOM is the use of satellites to provide communication services, such as telephone, television, and internet connectivity. SATCOM systems use a network of satellites in orbit around the Earth to transmit and receive signals between two or more points on the surface of the Earth, or between the Earth and another body in space (such as a spacecraft).

There are two main types of SATCOM systems: fixed and mobile. Fixed SATCOM systems are typically used to provide communication services to a specific location, such as a remote village or a ship at sea. Mobile SATCOM systems are designed to provide communication services to mobile users, such as aircraft, vehicles, or portable devices.

SATCOM systems are used in a wide range of applications, including military and government communications, emergency and disaster response, and commercial telecommunications. They are particularly useful in areas where it is difficult or impossible to install terrestrial communication infrastructure, such as in remote or inaccessible locations, or disaster-stricken areas.

SATCOM terminal 18

18 Some SATCOM operators refer to terminals as antennas or modems, which is technically inaccurate as a terminal is the overall system the end user needs to connect to.

In the context of satellite communications, a terminal is the user equipment that acts as an interface between the user’s network and the satellite constellation. SATCOM terminals vary in cost, size, and complexity, ranging from small handheld devices to larger installations used in industries such as aviation, rail, maritime, and the military. Terminals typically consist of antennas, transceivers, modems, and associated electronics that facilitate satellite communication for voice, data, video, or other forms of communication.

SATCOM frequency bands

For the most part, SATCOM takes place within the SHF or VHF bands, as defined by the ITU. However, SATCOM has its own frequency band definitions, which are more granular:

Band Start		Frequency (GHz)		Wavelengthn
Stop	Start	Stop
Classical L-Band		0.950	1.450	316	207
Extended L-Band		0.950	2.150	316	140
S-band		1.700	3.000	176	100
Extended C-Band	Downlink	3.400	4.200	88	71
Uplink	5.850	6.725	51	45
LMI C-Band	Downlink	3.700	4.000	81	75
Uplink	5.725	6.025	52	50
Russian C-Band	Downlink	3.650	4.150	82	72
Uplink	5.950	6.475	50	46
Standard C-Band	Downlink	3.700	4.200	81	71
Uplink	5.925	6.425	51	47
X-Band	Downlink	7.250	7.750	41	39
Uplink	7.900	8.400	38	36
Ku-Band	Downlink	10.000	13.000	30	23
Uplink	14.000	17.000	21	18
K-Band		18.000	26.500	17	11
Ka-Bandn	Downlink	18.000	21.000	17	14
Uplink	27.000	31.000	11	10

Figure 3.40 – SATCOM frequency bands

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Apr 2, 2023

LoRaWAN device classes – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

One of the primary design parameters for LoRaWAN devices is low power consumption. LoRaWAN devices don’t leverage any special battery technology. Some of them use simple AAA or AA batteries you can purchase at the supermarket. Rather, it’s because they try to spend as much time as possible doing as little as possible.

LoRaWAN device batteries are measured in terms of milliamp-hours (mAh), just the same as a power bank you might use to recharge your mobile phone. In the LoRaWAN specification, end devices/nodes can operate in three different modes: Class A, Class B, and Class C.

All end devices support Class A [14]. These spend most of their time in sleep mode. Because LoRaWAN is not a scheduled protocol, end devices can communicate any time there is a change in a sensor reading or when a local timer on the device goes off:

Figure 3.37 – Class A LoRaWAN temperature and humidity sensor

These devices can wake up and talk to the server at any random moment. After the device sends an uplink, it listens for a message from the network one and two seconds after the uplink (receive windows) before going back to sleep. Class A is the most energy efficient and results in the longest battery life. A 5,000mAh power bank for your phone could keep the average class A device running for 30 years 17.

17 Do not attempt this – it is likely such a power bank would self-discharge long before 30 years..

Examples of Class A devices include LoRaWAN-enabled pushbuttons that transmit alarm information in case of an emergency. There are such buttons on the market with a 600mAh capacity that can sustain 70,000 pushes of the button (and associated message transmission).

Class B devices are designed for use in applications where the device needs to transmit data more frequently, but still has relatively low power requirements. They are allowed to transmit data at regular intervals, and they listen for a response from the network after each transmission. This allows them to transmit data more frequently than Class A devices, and the part where they listen for a response ensures more reliability, but they still have a low power consumption:

Figure 3.38 – Class B LoRaWAN barometric pressure sensor

Devices in this class might include a smart meter that needs to reliably collect the kilowatt-hour utilization of a power circuit at regular intervals or an environmental sensor that needs to be sure it collects a windspeed sample at prescribed intervals for the dataset to be valid.

Class C devices are used in applications where the device needs to transmit data continuously. They are allowed to transmit data at any time and are always listening for a response from the network. They never go to sleep. This makes them the least power-efficient of the three classes:

Figure 3.39 – Class C LoRaWAN manhole sensor

An example might be a sensor in a manufacturing plant that ensures something dangerous remains within a specific temperature range. Another might be a device that’s used for real-time asset tracking, where we want to be actively alerted the moment something leaves the area it is supposed to be in.

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Mar 13, 2023

LoRaWAN network topology – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Notice that, unlike Wi-Fi, LoRaWAN inserts gateways as intermediaries between the devices and the network. While some large enterprise Wi-Fi networks have a similar topology, it is something manufacturers bolted on later for scale-related reasons and is not part of the original 802.11x specification.

With Wi-Fi, a device is only ever associated with one access point at a time, and when they move around, their session is cut over between them. LoRaWAN, on the other hand, sends its traffic to all of the gateways it can see simultaneously. If the server needs to send a message back to the device, it will choose the best gateway to use for that purpose:

Figure 3.36 – LoRaWAN network topology

This architecture is known as star-on-star. It yields advantages that are relevant to typical LoRaWAN use cases:

Redundancy: If a gateway fails or needs to be taken offline for maintenance, devices in the network are not affected.

Affordability: Because this form of redundancy is a fundamental part of the LoRaWAN specification, it is cheaper to implement both in terms of hardware and deployment effort.

Scalability: The number of gateways a network server can manage is limited only by the processing power of that server. When that is exhausted, additional servers can be added to scale the system horizontally. There are LoRaWAN networks with 40,000 gateways that support many millions of devices 15.

15 https://www.thethingsnetwork.org/map

Direct communication between devices

The LoRaWAN protocol does not support direct communication between end nodes. This can be confusing because LoRaWAN-capable devices exist that communicate without involving the gateways. However, this is done using a different protocol such as RadioHead 16 or something proprietary to that manufacturer.

16 https://www.airspayce.com/mikem/arduino/RadioHead/

Geolocation

All battery-powered LoRaWAN devices such as tags or sensors can move while they are communicating without increasing the power budget. Additionally, it is not always practical to track physical coordinates when deploying stationary devices.

Fortunately, the LoRaWAN protocol provides two inbuilt methods for determining the position of devices. Nothing needs to be added to existing LoRaWAN-capable endpoints for these to work, making it a lower-cost alternative to adding GNSS to all devices. In some cases, even when the devices do have GNSS positioning, LoRaWAN geolocation is used as a check on that position:

Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI): This measures the received signal power in milliwatts, and is measured in dBm. This method works for coarse positioning in the 1,000-to-2,000-meter range.

Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA): Each gateway must have a tightly synchronized time source for this method. Usually, this is obtained from a GNSS network such as GPS. The network server converts the timestamp of when messages were received by each gateway into a distance. It then plots those distances and estimates the devices’ location at the intersection. If a device can reach three or more gateways, its position can be calculated to be between 20 and 200 meters.

Regardless of which method is used, a good rule of thumb is that rural deployments will see accuracies toward the lower end of the range while accuracy in urban environments will be toward the higher end. Both methods will benefit from higher gateway density.

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Feb 7, 2023

Long range wide area network (LoRaWAN) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Long range wide area network (LoRaWAN)

This is a protocol that sits on top of LoRA. It operates at Layer 2 (data link) and Layer 3 (network) of the OSI model. LoRaWAN does the same job that Ethernet and IP do for typical computer networks. It is possible to use LoRaWAN on top of a different Layer 1 radio technology, but this is uncommon.

Figure 3.34 – Examples of LoRaWAN gateways

LoRaWAN is an open standard that is supported by the LoRa Alliance, a non-profit organization that promotes the adoption of the technology. It is widely used, having been adopted by many major telcos around the world. LoRaWAN networks are used for applications that require long-range communication, low power consumption, and a low data rate, such as smart metering, asset tracking, and environmental monitoring.

The technology is well suited for non-video IoT applications because it allows rapid deployment of inexpensive sensors and relatively little infrastructure compared, to, say, 5G:

Figure 3.35 – Smart agriculture with LoRaWAN

A LoRaWAN network consists of the following elements:

End devices: These are also called nodes. They are the actual sensors, actuators, cameras, and the like in an IoT deployment. They communicate with gateways over the LoRa protocol.

Gateways: These are also called concentrators. These are similar to Wi-Fi extenders in that they act as a bridge from the end device/node to the network. Unlike Wi-Fi, however, a given device can talk to multiple gateways at once, and all a gateway does is gather those device messages and forward them to the network server. It is up to the network server to handle duplicate messages.

You usually want your devices to talk to a minimum of three gateways.

They also have an IP connection of some sort – it could be wired or wireless – so that they can communicate with the network server. That link is not LoRaWAN, because it is an aggregation point and needs higher throughput.

Network server: These could be thought of as similar to the AP controllers some enterprise Wi-Fi networks use to manage multiple access points. They receive messages from the gateways/concentrators and forward them to the application – both over an IP network.

They are also responsible for deduplication of messages. This is because multiple gateways can receive the same message from a given device, and they will simply forward them along and let the network server figure out if it is unique or not.

Note that LoRaWAN devices are not paired to a gateway – they are paired to a network server. The gateways are just a transport mechanism.

Application server: This is the final stop of a LoRaWAN message’s journey. The application server handles message encryption, data storage, and authentication of new nodes into the network.

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