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Oct 29, 2023
Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Contemporaneously with the rollout of the US’s GPS, the Soviet Union began deployment of a similar system known as GLONASS. The first satellite was launched in 1982 and has continued to be developed by the Russian Federation and operated by Roscosmos. Due to economic constraints in the 1990s/2000s followed by sanction-related obstacles in the 2010s, GLONASS has faced numerous challenges. However, it remains operational and available for anyone to use.

Compared to GPS, GLONASS is less accurate on average (though only slightly). That said, due to the different configuration of its orbits, GLONASS is a bit more accurate than GPS at high latitudes (such as within the Arctic or Antarctic circles).

Galileo

Created by the European Union via the European Space Agency, Galileo is a multinational effort to operate a global positioning system that provides independence from single-country control as is seen with GPS and GLONASS. The system went live in 2016 and currently operates 30 satellites in MEO.

At the time of writing, Galileo is the most accurate of the three global systems for the average user.

Regional and augmentation systems

In addition to the three global systems, there are a few regional and augmentation systems. These include the following:

Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS): Operated by Japan, QZSS uses a combination of satellites in geostationary and highly elliptical orbits to augment GPS, improving performance for terminals in Japan and the surrounding region.

Navigation Indian Constellation (NAVIC): Deployed by India, NAVIC uses a handful of geostationary satellites to improve performance for GPS terminals in South Asia.

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS): The US Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) operates three satellites in geostationary orbit to improve navigation for civilian aircraft in North America.

European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS): A distinct system from Galileo, EGNOS is a set of three geostationary satellites that augment GPS for European users. Future plans include the ability to augment the Galileo system as well.

Other uses for GNSS

When a very precise clock source is needed that is accurate down to nanoseconds, expensive atomic clocks are one approach. However, because GNSS satellites have one or more atomic clocks onboard, their signals can be used to indirectly gain access to a free atomic clock. For example, 5G NFV functions, or virtual machines running a Software-Defined Radio (SDR) application require access to a physical clock. Network Time Protocol (NTP) or Precision Time Protocol (PTP) servers frequently save money by making use of GNSS signals.

Summary

In this chapter, we introduced you to elements that are common to all wireless communication technologies that are used at the far edge – concepts such as wavelength, frequency, duplexing, modulation, multipathing, and antenna design.

We built upon that by diving into cellular networking technologies such as 4G/LTE and 5G, reviewing the key advantages of 5G networks and how they enable new low-latency/high-throughput use cases. You were given a survey of LPWAN technologies such as LoRaWAN and NB-IoT, both of which are crucial to use cases such as smart agriculture, V2X, and smart cities.

Finally, we discussed the basics needed to understand SATCOM technologies and the services based on them – upon which the most remote edge computing use cases are dependent.

In the next chapter, we will cover the AWS Snow family of services. These target remote/disconnected edge compute situations.

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Sep 1, 2023
GEOMETRIC DILUTION OF PRECISION (GDOP) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

GDOP is a calculated value that combines the impact of several factors related to the angle at which the ground station can reach the satellites into a single coefficient that expresses how accurate a calculated position is.

Referring back to the previous figure, we can see an example of good geometry of the satellites involved. They are spread across the sky in all three axes. Contrast that with the following situation. In this case, the user is in an area surrounded by mountains. The terminal has no choice but to use samples from satellites that are closer together in the sky, and the calculated position will be less accurate as a result:

Figure 3.43 – Poor geometry due to obstructions

Other sources of GNSS inaccuracy

Atmospheric refraction is when a satellite’s signal is bent a little while traveling through the upper layers of the atmosphere. Sunspot activity can cause interference. Lower-quality receivers are more susceptible to measurement noise, which can happen even under perfect environmental conditions. A clock error of 1 nanosecond (a billionth of a second) can introduce as much as half a meter (1.5 feet) of imprecision.

Urban environments pose a particular challenge to GNSSs. Not only is the geometry compromised by buildings, but the signals the user can receive are often reflected off of them – causing unwanted multipath propagation as previously discussed. If you’ve ever requested a ride from an app on your phone and wondered why the driver thinks you’re at a restaurant two streets away, these are likely culprits.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The first satellite for what we now know as GPS was launched in 1978 by the United States Air Force. At first, only the US military had access to the system.

In 1983, pilots of a commercial flight from Alaska to Korea made a navigational error that took their aircraft over the Kamchatka Peninsula near Japan. In response, a Soviet SU-15 interceptor shot down the Boeing 747, killing all 269 civilians onboard. To prevent future incidents, the US opened GPS for civilian use.

As of 2020, GPS is operated by the United States Space Force and remains open for anyone to use. At the time of writing, it has 32 satellites in a semi-synchronous21 medium Earth orbit (MEO) with an altitude of 20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles). Each orbit has a different inclination, providing global ground coverage.

21 A semi-synchronous orbit is one in which the spacecraft passes over a given point on the Earth twice per day.

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Aug 7, 2023
LOW-EARTH ORBIT (LEO) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

LEO satellites are positioned in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of up to 2,000 kilometers (1,200 miles). Because of this, they are in constant motion relative to an observer.

LEO satellites are known for their ability to provide coverage over a large area of the Earth’s surface since they orbit the Earth relatively quickly (compared to GEO satellites). This allows them to provide communication and other services to a large number of users, as well as to track the movement of objects on the surface of the Earth.

The primary technical advantage of LEO-based SATCOM systems is their much lower latency than GEO (as low as ~20ms RTT). The main disadvantage is caused by the fact that they are in constant motion concerning any given point on the ground. They must use mechanisms such as motorized tracking antennas (or complex phased-array antennas) and constellations of a sufficient size to ensure users on the ground can always reach at least one satellite.

Here are some examples of LEO-based SATCOM services:

Certus 700: An L-band service from Iridium that supports speeds as high as 704 Kbps. It is served by 66 cross-linked satellites in LEO.

Starlink Roam: A Ka/Ku-band service from Starlink that supports speeds up to 200 Mbps. It is served by over 3,50020 cross-linked satellites in LEO, with plans to grow to as many as 12,000.

20 As of February, 2023.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

GNSS is an overarching term that includes all of the systems that use timing signals from satellite constellations to determine a position on the ground for navigation purposes.

GNSS for positioning

Trilateration

All satellite-based navigation systems discussed in this section determine a terminal’s position using trilateration. Unlike triangulation, it measures distance – not angles. Satellites in these systems repeatedly broadcast their current position and local time, derived from multiple onboard atomic clocks.

The following figure demonstrates a point on the ground receiving the same broadcast from four satellites:

Figure 3.42 – Trilateration using four satellites

From these four pieces of data, a terminal can calculate its position within a margin of error that varies from centimeters to hundreds of meters, depending on the circumstances.

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Jul 26, 2023
Satellite orbits – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Geostationary orbit (GEO)

GEO satellites are positioned in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of about 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles). They are designed to remain in a fixed location relative to a point on the Earth’s surface as they orbit the Earth at the same rate that the Earth rotates.

This makes things easy for ground-based users. There are mobile apps that will tell you exactly where in the sky to point your antenna, and then you’re done:

Figure 3.41 – GEO satellite distance

The downside is the high latency incurred when signals have to travel that far. The speed of light is fast, but it is finite. ~200 milliseconds are required for light to go from one spot on the earth up to the GEO satellite and another 200 to go down to another spot. Factor in the latency of any ground segment and a 600ms RTT is considered typical.

Here are some typical GEO-based SATCOM data services:

Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN): This is an L-band service from Inmarsat. It can achieve speeds up to 492kbps for standard IP data traffic and up to 800kbps for streaming data (usually video), although this depends heavily upon the terminal involved. Six geostationary satellites are involved in providing global coverage (including polar regions) for this service. It is extremely reliable, supporting a 99.9% uptime SLA.

Global Xpress (GX): This is a Ka-band service from Inmarsat. It can achieve download speeds up to 50mbps and 5mbps speeds for upload. Five geostationary satellites provide near-global coverage.

European Aviation Network (EAN): This is a hybrid service comprised of a single Inmarsat S-band satellite in geostationary orbit above Europe and Vodafone’s terrestrial 4G/LTE network. Specifically built to provide data services onboard aircraft in European airspace, data rates as high as 100mbps are supported. Aircraft use the terrestrial network below 10,000 feet and switch to the S-band service above this altitude.

ViaSat-3: This is a Ka-band service that uses a constellation of three geostationary satellites operated by ViaSat. Each satellite serves a specific region (AMER, EMEA, or APAC), and has a total network capacity greater than 1 terabit per second. Typical consumer plans are 100mbps, while contracts for defense and commercial entities can be higher.

GEO HTS: This is a Ku-band service from SES that can achieve speeds up to 10mbps. It has near-global coverage using four satellites in geostationary orbit.

FlexGround: This is a Ku-band service from Intelsat that supports download speeds up to 10mbps and 3mbps upload speeds. Being one of the pioneers in SATCOM19, Intelsat has over 50 satellites in geostationary orbit.

19 Intelsat launched its first satellite in 1965.

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May 15, 2023
Integrating SATCOM – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Satellite communication (SATCOM)

SATCOM is the use of satellites to provide communication services, such as telephone, television, and internet connectivity. SATCOM systems use a network of satellites in orbit around the Earth to transmit and receive signals between two or more points on the surface of the Earth, or between the Earth and another body in space (such as a spacecraft).

There are two main types of SATCOM systems: fixed and mobile. Fixed SATCOM systems are typically used to provide communication services to a specific location, such as a remote village or a ship at sea. Mobile SATCOM systems are designed to provide communication services to mobile users, such as aircraft, vehicles, or portable devices.

SATCOM systems are used in a wide range of applications, including military and government communications, emergency and disaster response, and commercial telecommunications. They are particularly useful in areas where it is difficult or impossible to install terrestrial communication infrastructure, such as in remote or inaccessible locations, or disaster-stricken areas.

SATCOM terminal18

18 Some SATCOM operators refer to terminals as antennas or modems, which is technically inaccurate as a terminal is the overall system the end user needs to connect to.

In the context of satellite communications, a terminal is the user equipment that acts as an interface between the user’s network and the satellite constellation. SATCOM terminals vary in cost, size, and complexity, ranging from small handheld devices to larger installations used in industries such as aviation, rail, maritime, and the military. Terminals typically consist of antennas, transceivers, modems, and associated electronics that facilitate satellite communication for voice, data, video, or other forms of communication.

SATCOM frequency bands

For the most part, SATCOM takes place within the SHF or VHF bands, as defined by the ITU. However, SATCOM has its own frequency band definitions, which are more granular:

  Band StartFrequency (GHz)Wavelengthn
StopStartStop 
Classical L-Band0.9501.450316207
Extended L-Band0.9502.150316140
S-band1.7003.000176100
Extended C-BandDownlink3.4004.2008871
Uplink5.8506.7255145
LMI C-BandDownlink3.7004.0008175
Uplink5.7256.0255250
Russian C-BandDownlink3.6504.1508272
Uplink5.9506.4755046
Standard C-BandDownlink3.7004.2008171
Uplink5.9256.4255147
X-BandDownlink7.2507.7504139
Uplink7.9008.4003836
Ku-BandDownlink10.00013.0003023
Uplink14.00017.0002118
K-Band18.00026.5001711
Ka-BandnDownlink18.00021.0001714
Uplink27.00031.0001110

Figure 3.40 – SATCOM frequency bands

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Apr 2, 2023
LoRaWAN device classes – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

One of the primary design parameters for LoRaWAN devices is low power consumption. LoRaWAN devices don’t leverage any special battery technology. Some of them use simple AAA or AA batteries you can purchase at the supermarket. Rather, it’s because they try to spend as much time as possible doing as little as possible.

LoRaWAN device batteries are measured in terms of milliamp-hours (mAh), just the same as a power bank you might use to recharge your mobile phone. In the LoRaWAN specification, end devices/nodes can operate in three different modes: Class A, Class B, and Class C.

All end devices support Class A [14]. These spend most of their time in sleep mode. Because LoRaWAN is not a scheduled protocol, end devices can communicate any time there is a change in a sensor reading or when a local timer on the device goes off:

Figure 3.37 – Class A LoRaWAN temperature and humidity sensor

These devices can wake up and talk to the server at any random moment. After the device sends an uplink, it listens for a message from the network one and two seconds after the uplink (receive windows) before going back to sleep. Class A is the most energy efficient and results in the longest battery life. A 5,000mAh power bank for your phone could keep the average class A device running for 30 years 17.

17 Do not attempt this – it is likely such a power bank would self-discharge long before 30 years..

Examples of Class A devices include LoRaWAN-enabled pushbuttons that transmit alarm information in case of an emergency. There are such buttons on the market with a 600mAh capacity that can sustain 70,000 pushes of the button (and associated message transmission).

Class B devices are designed for use in applications where the device needs to transmit data more frequently, but still has relatively low power requirements. They are allowed to transmit data at regular intervals, and they listen for a response from the network after each transmission. This allows them to transmit data more frequently than Class A devices, and the part where they listen for a response ensures more reliability, but they still have a low power consumption:

Figure 3.38 – Class B LoRaWAN barometric pressure sensor

Devices in this class might include a smart meter that needs to reliably collect the kilowatt-hour utilization of a power circuit at regular intervals or an environmental sensor that needs to be sure it collects a windspeed sample at prescribed intervals for the dataset to be valid.

Class C devices are used in applications where the device needs to transmit data continuously. They are allowed to transmit data at any time and are always listening for a response from the network. They never go to sleep. This makes them the least power-efficient of the three classes:

Figure 3.39 – Class C LoRaWAN manhole sensor

An example might be a sensor in a manufacturing plant that ensures something dangerous remains within a specific temperature range. Another might be a device that’s used for real-time asset tracking, where we want to be actively alerted the moment something leaves the area it is supposed to be in.

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Mar 13, 2023
LoRaWAN network topology – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Notice that, unlike Wi-Fi, LoRaWAN inserts gateways as intermediaries between the devices and the network. While some large enterprise Wi-Fi networks have a similar topology, it is something manufacturers bolted on later for scale-related reasons and is not part of the original 802.11x specification.

With Wi-Fi, a device is only ever associated with one access point at a time, and when they move around, their session is cut over between them. LoRaWAN, on the other hand, sends its traffic to all of the gateways it can see simultaneously. If the server needs to send a message back to the device, it will choose the best gateway to use for that purpose:

Figure 3.36 – LoRaWAN network topology

This architecture is known as star-on-star. It yields advantages that are relevant to typical LoRaWAN use cases:

Redundancy: If a gateway fails or needs to be taken offline for maintenance, devices in the network are not affected.

Affordability: Because this form of redundancy is a fundamental part of the LoRaWAN specification, it is cheaper to implement both in terms of hardware and deployment effort.

Scalability: The number of gateways a network server can manage is limited only by the processing power of that server. When that is exhausted, additional servers can be added to scale the system horizontally. There are LoRaWAN networks with 40,000 gateways that support many millions of devices 15.

15 https://www.thethingsnetwork.org/map

Direct communication between devices

The LoRaWAN protocol does not support direct communication between end nodes. This can be confusing because LoRaWAN-capable devices exist that communicate without involving the gateways. However, this is done using a different protocol such as RadioHead16 or something proprietary to that manufacturer.

16 https://www.airspayce.com/mikem/arduino/RadioHead/

Geolocation

All battery-powered LoRaWAN devices such as tags or sensors can move while they are communicating without increasing the power budget. Additionally, it is not always practical to track physical coordinates when deploying stationary devices.

Fortunately, the LoRaWAN protocol provides two inbuilt methods for determining the position of devices. Nothing needs to be added to existing LoRaWAN-capable endpoints for these to work, making it a lower-cost alternative to adding GNSS to all devices. In some cases, even when the devices do have GNSS positioning, LoRaWAN geolocation is used as a check on that position:

Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI): This measures the received signal power in milliwatts, and is measured in dBm. This method works for coarse positioning in the 1,000-to-2,000-meter range.

Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA): Each gateway must have a tightly synchronized time source for this method. Usually, this is obtained from a GNSS network such as GPS. The network server converts the timestamp of when messages were received by each gateway into a distance. It then plots those distances and estimates the devices’ location at the intersection. If a device can reach three or more gateways, its position can be calculated to be between 20 and 200 meters.

Regardless of which method is used, a good rule of thumb is that rural deployments will see accuracies toward the lower end of the range while accuracy in urban environments will be toward the higher end. Both methods will benefit from higher gateway density.

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Feb 7, 2023
Long range wide area network (LoRaWAN) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Long range wide area network (LoRaWAN)

This is a protocol that sits on top of LoRA. It operates at Layer 2 (data link) and Layer 3 (network) of the OSI model. LoRaWAN does the same job that Ethernet and IP do for typical computer networks. It is possible to use LoRaWAN on top of a different Layer 1 radio technology, but this is uncommon.

Figure 3.34 – Examples of LoRaWAN gateways

LoRaWAN is an open standard that is supported by the LoRa Alliance, a non-profit organization that promotes the adoption of the technology. It is widely used, having been adopted by many major telcos around the world. LoRaWAN networks are used for applications that require long-range communication, low power consumption, and a low data rate, such as smart metering, asset tracking, and environmental monitoring.

The technology is well suited for non-video IoT applications because it allows rapid deployment of inexpensive sensors and relatively little infrastructure compared, to, say, 5G:

Figure 3.35 – Smart agriculture with LoRaWAN

A LoRaWAN network consists of the following elements:

End devices: These are also called nodes. They are the actual sensors, actuators, cameras, and the like in an IoT deployment. They communicate with gateways over the LoRa protocol.

Gateways: These are also called concentrators. These are similar to Wi-Fi extenders in that they act as a bridge from the end device/node to the network. Unlike Wi-Fi, however, a given device can talk to multiple gateways at once, and all a gateway does is gather those device messages and forward them to the network server. It is up to the network server to handle duplicate messages.

You usually want your devices to talk to a minimum of three gateways.

They also have an IP connection of some sort – it could be wired or wireless – so that they can communicate with the network server. That link is not LoRaWAN, because it is an aggregation point and needs higher throughput.

Network server: These could be thought of as similar to the AP controllers some enterprise Wi-Fi networks use to manage multiple access points. They receive messages from the gateways/concentrators and forward them to the application – both over an IP network.

They are also responsible for deduplication of messages. This is because multiple gateways can receive the same message from a given device, and they will simply forward them along and let the network server figure out if it is unique or not.

Note that LoRaWAN devices are not paired to a gateway – they are paired to a network server. The gateways are just a transport mechanism.

Application server: This is the final stop of a LoRaWAN message’s journey. The application server handles message encryption, data storage, and authentication of new nodes into the network.

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Dec 8, 2022
Connecting to low-powered devices with LoRaWAN – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

First, let’s understand what Long Range (LoRa) is, as well as its benefits and drawbacks.

LoRa

LoRa operates at Layer 1 (physical) of the OSI model. You could think of it as the equivalent of a Cat-6 RJ-45 cable. You can’t do much with that on its own.

LoRa

LPWAN radio technology was developed by Semtech and designed for use in IoT. It is based on a spread spectrum technique called Chirp Spread Spectrum (CSS), which allows data to be transmitted over long distances (up to several kilometers) with low power consumption.

Benefits of LoRa

The following are some of the benefits of LoRa:

Long range14: 40 kilometers/25 miles (rural environment) and 5 kilometers/3 miles (urban environment)

14 These figures represent best-case line-of-sight range, or the radius of coverage with an omnidirectional antenna. Further, they can vary depending on the design of the gateway.

Low power: Designed to consume minimal energy, with some LoRa-capable devices having built-in batteries that last 20 years. The asynchronous connection model allows the device to sleep when there is no data to transmit or receive.

Reliable: Built-in forward error correction improves resilience against interference.

High penetration: Depending on the region, LoRa operates between 863-928MHz. This frequency range is less than half of the lowest 802.11x band. Due to this, LoRa signals penetrate obstacles approximately twice as well as Wi-Fi.

License-free: See the following table for the unlicensed frequency ranges for LoRa:

  RegionBand
North AmericaUS915 (902-928MHz)
EuropeEU868 (863-873MHz)
South AmericaAU915 (915-928MHz)
IndiaIN865 (865-867MHz)
AsiaAS923 (915-928MHz)

Figure 3.33 – License-free LoRa bands by region

Drawbacks of LoRa

Here are some of the drawbacks of LoRa:

Low throughput: The max bitrate is around 50 kilobits a second

Uncontrolled spectrum usage: License-free operation helps with deployment, but if you have ever had problems with your neighbor’s Wi-Fi router stepping on your signal, the potential is apparent.

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Nov 26, 2022
WiFi and MIMO – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

As discussed previously, MIMO is a method for increasing effective throughput by deliberately exploiting multipath propagation. The different generations of WiFi make use of this in varying ways.

802.11n (Wi-Fi-4)

This supported the more limited Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO). As its name suggests, SU-MIMO means the access point can only be sent to one client at a time.

802.11ac (Wi-Fi-5)

This added MU-MIMO (d). The (d) stands for downlink. With MU-MIMO (d), only one station can transmit, but multiple stations can receive at any given time.

802.11ax (Wi-Fi-6)

This was extended to MU-MIMO (u/d). Now, multiple devices can both transmit and receive simultaneously.

MU-OFDMA

Basic OFDM has been supported since 802.11a (Wi-Fi-2). 802.11ax (Wi-Fi-6) has extended this to now support multiple users.

You could think of the older style of OFDM as a sequence of trucks, each delivering boxes from one vendor at a set time every day. MU-OFDMA allows each truck to be loaded with multiple vendor’s boxes. It also allows the delivery schedule of those trucks to happen only when there’s a full load.

Older Wi-Fi specifications were designed for web browsing and checking email. Congestion emerged as video streaming, AR/VR, and gaming became common. This, combined with more and more client devices transmitting at the same time, meant that the queuing caused by simple OFDM increased latency.

Perhaps most importantly, MU-OFDMA allows priorities to be set not only per client but per protocol/traffic type. In other words, the access point could prioritize video streaming at one level, IoT messages at another, and mission-critical VOIP at the highest.

802.11p (DSRC)

An amendment to the broader IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN) standard, 802.11p is tailored for high-speed, short-range communication in a vehicular environment. The standard operates in the 5.9 GHz frequency band and utilizes the Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) protocol to ensure low latency and reliable data exchange.

The primary advantage of DSRC over 4G/LTE or 5G for V2X is that it can provide some value in the absence of any infrastructure. If two V2X-equipped cars come within range of each other, they will exchange information in a peer-to-peer fashion. This would function even in the middle of the Sahara.

In 2016, Toyota became the first automaker to introduce cars equipped with V2X systems, followed by GM in 2017. Both of these used DSRC as opposed to 4G/LTE or 5G. While DSRC was the first standard the automotive industry adopted, that is changing for several reasons. Compared to 4G/LTE or 5G for V2X, DSRC suffers from the following limitations:

Limited capacity and scalability: DSRC operates in a narrow frequency band (5.9GHz), which limits its capacity to support a high number of simultaneous connections in dense traffic scenarios. 5G offers broader bandwidth and improved spectral efficiency, allowing it to handle more devices and users concurrently.

Lower data rates: DSRC offers lower data rates compared to 5G, which hinders its ability to support advanced V2X applications that require higher throughput, such as high-definition video streaming for autonomous vehicles. 5G, with its enhanced data rates, can better accommodate these demanding use cases.

Latency: Although DSRC provides relatively low latency communication, 5G has the potential to achieve even lower latencies, especially with the implementation of 5G Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication (URLLC). URLLC can enable mission-critical applications and real-time control systems that demand near-instantaneous response times.

Network slicing: 5G supports network slicing, a feature that allows the creation of virtual networks tailored to specific use cases or applications. This enables the allocation of dedicated resources for V2X communications, ensuring the desired performance levels. DSRC, on the other hand, does not offer this level of customization and flexibility.

Global harmonization: While DSRC has been adopted in some regions, it has not achieved global harmonization, leading to inconsistencies in spectrum allocation and regulation across different countries. 5G has a more unified approach, with global standardization and broader adoption, making it more attractive for V2X implementations across various regions.

Keeping all of this in mind, automakers have begun to include both in their chipsets. The idea is that cellular networks are the primary communication path, and when those are not available, the chipset will leverage DSRC for peer-to-peer vehicle communication when and where it can.

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