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Aug 19, 2024
DNIs – Addressing Disconnected Scenarios with AWS Snow Family

DNIs were introduced to AWS Snow Family devices to support advanced network use cases. DNIs provide layer 2 network access without any translation or filtering, enabling features such as multicast streams, transitive routing, and load balancing. This direct access enhances network performance and allows for customized network configurations.

DNIs support VLAN tags, enabling network segmentation and isolation within the Snow Family device. Additionally, the MAC address can be customized for each DNI, providing further flexibility in network configuration:

Figure 4.18 – AWS Snowball Edge device with one DNI

DNIs and security groups

It’s important to note that traffic on DNIs is not protected by security groups, so additional security measures need to be implemented at the application or network level.

Snowball Edge devices support DNIs on all types of physical Ethernet ports, with each port capable of accommodating up to seven DNIs. For example, RJ45 port #1 can have seven DNIs, with four DNIs mapped to one EC2 instance and three DNIs mapped to another instance. RJ45 port #2 could simultaneously accommodate an additional seven DNIs for other EC2 instances.

Note that the Storage Optimized variant of AWS Snowball Edge does not support DNIs:

Figure 4.19 – AWS Snowball Edge network flows with DNIs

Looking at Figure 4.19, we can see that al2-1 has two Ethernet ports configured inside Linux. One is on the typical 34.223.14.128/25 subnet, but the other is directly on the 192.168.100.0/24 RFC 1918 space. A configuration such as this is the only time an interface on an EC2 instance on an AWS Snow Family device should be configured for any subnet but 34.223.14.128/25.

Figure 4.20 shows what a DNI looks like from the perspective of the EC2 instance that has one attached:

Figure 4.20 – DNI details under Amazon Linux 2

Storage allocation

All AWS Snowball Edge device variants work the same way with respect to storage allocation. Object or file storage can draw from the device’s HDD storage capacity, while block volumes used by EC2 instances can be drawn from either the device’s HDD or SDD capacity. Figure 4.21 shows an example of this:

Figure 4.21 – Storage allocation on AWS Snowball Edge

S3 buckets on a device can be thought of as being thin-provisioned in the sense that they start out consuming 0 bytes, and as objects are added, they only take the amount needed for those objects from the HDD capacity.

Block volumes for EC2 instances, on the other hand, can be thought of as thick-provisioned. When the volume is created, a capacity is specified, and it is immediately removed from the HDD pool for any other use.

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May 10, 2024
Physical networking – Addressing Disconnected Scenarios with AWS Snow Family

AWS Snowball Edge devices have several Ethernet interfaces you can use to connect them to your network. The interfaces can operate at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, 25 Gbit/s, 40 Gbit/s, or 100 Gbit/s:

Figure 4.10 – Physical network interfaces (PNIs) on AWS Snowball Edge

Interfaces

RJ45: The RJ45 ports on an AWS Snowball Edge device support Ethernet over copper twisted-pair cables at either 1 Gbit/s or 10 Gbit/s. The interface will negotiate one or the other depending on what type of switch port is on the other end. Note that a 10 Gbit/s operation requires, at minimum, a Cat6a cable, or you can expect to drop packets. Cat8 cables are recommended.

Small Form-factor Pluggable (SFP) iteration 28: These are empty slots into which you must insert a transceiver module of some type. You must supply the transceiver module as none ship with an AWS Snowball device of any type. The 28 at the end refers to the fact that they can take Ethernet SFPs that go as fast as 25Gbit/s. These slots are also backward compatible with older 10 Gbit/s or even 1 Gbit/s modules:

Figure 4.11 – 25 GbE fiber optic (left) and 25 GbE RJ45 copper SFPs (right)

With SFP modules, you must supply the correct cable type as well. In the case of the 25 GbE fiber optic SFPs shown in Figure 4.11, those would be 50-micron LC-LC OM3 (or better) multimode cables. LC stands for Lucent Connector. They are the smaller squarish connectors that have a receive and transmit strand. OM3 stands for Optical Multimode version 3. These cables typically have an aqua colored jacket, a core size of 50 micrometers. In the case of 25 GbE over copper, a Cat8 twisted pair is required (see Figure 4.12):

Figure 4.12 – Cat8 twisted-pair RJ45 cable

Alternatively, 25 GbE SFP28 Twinax cables can be used in these slots. A Twinax cable, also called a direct-attach copper (DAC) cable, has transceivers on both ends and the cable is molded together as one big unit (see Figure 4.13). The cable part inside Twinax is copper, but it isn’t twisted-pair. It is essentially two coaxial cables bundled together – hence the name Twinax(ial):

Figure 4.13 – 25 GbE SFP28 Twinax cable

QSFP variant 28 – Like the SFP28 slots, these are empty sockets that you must insert a transceiver into. As is the case with the SFP28 slots, you must supply the transceiver yourself. Whereas SFP28 slots have a single 25 Gbit/s lane, the Quad part of QSFP28 denotes that these have four lanes. They can, therefore, support up to 100 Gbit/s over this single interface. Connectivity options remain the same as with SFP28, but in practice, Twinax cables are almost always used with QSFP. Note that these slots support older 40 Gbit/s modules as well:

Figure 4.14 – 100 GbE QSFP28 Twinax cable

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Jan 27, 2024
End-to-end network throughput – Addressing Disconnected Scenarios with AWS Snow Family

Of course, before starting any migration, even to a local device, one must evaluate all of the physical network links involved end to end. Having the AWS Snowball device connected to a 40 GbE switchport via Quad-Small Form-factor Pluggable (QSFP) won’t do much good if an upstream network link operates at a single gigabit:

Figure 4.3 – A full end-to-end throughput path

Additionally, there can be choke points on backend Storage Area Network (SAN) fabrics, disk arrays, Network-Attached Storage (NAS) devices, or virtualization software somewhere in the middle. In Figure 4.3, for example, the data being copied ultimately resides inside Virtual Machine Disk (VMDK) files on an aging SAN array attached via Fibre Channel (FC) to a server running VMware ESXi.

From the laptop’s perspective, the data is being copied over Common Internet File System (CIFS) from one of the VMware VMs, but in reality, there is a virtualization layer and yet another layer of networking behind that. If, for whatever reason, that SAN array’s controller or disk group could only push 4 Gbit/s to the VMware host, it simply doesn’t matter that all components of the “normal” network support 10 Gbit/s.

Data loader workstation resources

When transferring data to an AWS Snowball Edge device, it is important to note that the throughput achieved is highly dependent upon the available CPU resources of the machine doing the transfer.

Figure 4.4 – AWS Snowball Edge device loading from a laptop

In Figure 4.4, we can see that a reasonably powerful laptop with 8 CPU cores can transfer around 6 Gbit/s, even though there are effectively 10 Gbit/s available end to end on the network. Using a more powerful machine, particularly one with more CPU cores, we would expect the net throughput to rise.

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Oct 29, 2023
Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Contemporaneously with the rollout of the US’s GPS, the Soviet Union began deployment of a similar system known as GLONASS. The first satellite was launched in 1982 and has continued to be developed by the Russian Federation and operated by Roscosmos. Due to economic constraints in the 1990s/2000s followed by sanction-related obstacles in the 2010s, GLONASS has faced numerous challenges. However, it remains operational and available for anyone to use.

Compared to GPS, GLONASS is less accurate on average (though only slightly). That said, due to the different configuration of its orbits, GLONASS is a bit more accurate than GPS at high latitudes (such as within the Arctic or Antarctic circles).

Galileo

Created by the European Union via the European Space Agency, Galileo is a multinational effort to operate a global positioning system that provides independence from single-country control as is seen with GPS and GLONASS. The system went live in 2016 and currently operates 30 satellites in MEO.

At the time of writing, Galileo is the most accurate of the three global systems for the average user.

Regional and augmentation systems

In addition to the three global systems, there are a few regional and augmentation systems. These include the following:

Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS): Operated by Japan, QZSS uses a combination of satellites in geostationary and highly elliptical orbits to augment GPS, improving performance for terminals in Japan and the surrounding region.

Navigation Indian Constellation (NAVIC): Deployed by India, NAVIC uses a handful of geostationary satellites to improve performance for GPS terminals in South Asia.

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS): The US Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) operates three satellites in geostationary orbit to improve navigation for civilian aircraft in North America.

European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS): A distinct system from Galileo, EGNOS is a set of three geostationary satellites that augment GPS for European users. Future plans include the ability to augment the Galileo system as well.

Other uses for GNSS

When a very precise clock source is needed that is accurate down to nanoseconds, expensive atomic clocks are one approach. However, because GNSS satellites have one or more atomic clocks onboard, their signals can be used to indirectly gain access to a free atomic clock. For example, 5G NFV functions, or virtual machines running a Software-Defined Radio (SDR) application require access to a physical clock. Network Time Protocol (NTP) or Precision Time Protocol (PTP) servers frequently save money by making use of GNSS signals.

Summary

In this chapter, we introduced you to elements that are common to all wireless communication technologies that are used at the far edge – concepts such as wavelength, frequency, duplexing, modulation, multipathing, and antenna design.

We built upon that by diving into cellular networking technologies such as 4G/LTE and 5G, reviewing the key advantages of 5G networks and how they enable new low-latency/high-throughput use cases. You were given a survey of LPWAN technologies such as LoRaWAN and NB-IoT, both of which are crucial to use cases such as smart agriculture, V2X, and smart cities.

Finally, we discussed the basics needed to understand SATCOM technologies and the services based on them – upon which the most remote edge computing use cases are dependent.

In the next chapter, we will cover the AWS Snow family of services. These target remote/disconnected edge compute situations.

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Jul 26, 2023
Satellite orbits – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Geostationary orbit (GEO)

GEO satellites are positioned in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of about 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles). They are designed to remain in a fixed location relative to a point on the Earth’s surface as they orbit the Earth at the same rate that the Earth rotates.

This makes things easy for ground-based users. There are mobile apps that will tell you exactly where in the sky to point your antenna, and then you’re done:

Figure 3.41 – GEO satellite distance

The downside is the high latency incurred when signals have to travel that far. The speed of light is fast, but it is finite. ~200 milliseconds are required for light to go from one spot on the earth up to the GEO satellite and another 200 to go down to another spot. Factor in the latency of any ground segment and a 600ms RTT is considered typical.

Here are some typical GEO-based SATCOM data services:

Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN): This is an L-band service from Inmarsat. It can achieve speeds up to 492kbps for standard IP data traffic and up to 800kbps for streaming data (usually video), although this depends heavily upon the terminal involved. Six geostationary satellites are involved in providing global coverage (including polar regions) for this service. It is extremely reliable, supporting a 99.9% uptime SLA.

Global Xpress (GX): This is a Ka-band service from Inmarsat. It can achieve download speeds up to 50mbps and 5mbps speeds for upload. Five geostationary satellites provide near-global coverage.

European Aviation Network (EAN): This is a hybrid service comprised of a single Inmarsat S-band satellite in geostationary orbit above Europe and Vodafone’s terrestrial 4G/LTE network. Specifically built to provide data services onboard aircraft in European airspace, data rates as high as 100mbps are supported. Aircraft use the terrestrial network below 10,000 feet and switch to the S-band service above this altitude.

ViaSat-3: This is a Ka-band service that uses a constellation of three geostationary satellites operated by ViaSat. Each satellite serves a specific region (AMER, EMEA, or APAC), and has a total network capacity greater than 1 terabit per second. Typical consumer plans are 100mbps, while contracts for defense and commercial entities can be higher.

GEO HTS: This is a Ku-band service from SES that can achieve speeds up to 10mbps. It has near-global coverage using four satellites in geostationary orbit.

FlexGround: This is a Ku-band service from Intelsat that supports download speeds up to 10mbps and 3mbps upload speeds. Being one of the pioneers in SATCOM19, Intelsat has over 50 satellites in geostationary orbit.

19 Intelsat launched its first satellite in 1965.

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May 15, 2023
Integrating SATCOM – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Satellite communication (SATCOM)

SATCOM is the use of satellites to provide communication services, such as telephone, television, and internet connectivity. SATCOM systems use a network of satellites in orbit around the Earth to transmit and receive signals between two or more points on the surface of the Earth, or between the Earth and another body in space (such as a spacecraft).

There are two main types of SATCOM systems: fixed and mobile. Fixed SATCOM systems are typically used to provide communication services to a specific location, such as a remote village or a ship at sea. Mobile SATCOM systems are designed to provide communication services to mobile users, such as aircraft, vehicles, or portable devices.

SATCOM systems are used in a wide range of applications, including military and government communications, emergency and disaster response, and commercial telecommunications. They are particularly useful in areas where it is difficult or impossible to install terrestrial communication infrastructure, such as in remote or inaccessible locations, or disaster-stricken areas.

SATCOM terminal18

18 Some SATCOM operators refer to terminals as antennas or modems, which is technically inaccurate as a terminal is the overall system the end user needs to connect to.

In the context of satellite communications, a terminal is the user equipment that acts as an interface between the user’s network and the satellite constellation. SATCOM terminals vary in cost, size, and complexity, ranging from small handheld devices to larger installations used in industries such as aviation, rail, maritime, and the military. Terminals typically consist of antennas, transceivers, modems, and associated electronics that facilitate satellite communication for voice, data, video, or other forms of communication.

SATCOM frequency bands

For the most part, SATCOM takes place within the SHF or VHF bands, as defined by the ITU. However, SATCOM has its own frequency band definitions, which are more granular:

  Band StartFrequency (GHz)Wavelengthn
StopStartStop 
Classical L-Band0.9501.450316207
Extended L-Band0.9502.150316140
S-band1.7003.000176100
Extended C-BandDownlink3.4004.2008871
Uplink5.8506.7255145
LMI C-BandDownlink3.7004.0008175
Uplink5.7256.0255250
Russian C-BandDownlink3.6504.1508272
Uplink5.9506.4755046
Standard C-BandDownlink3.7004.2008171
Uplink5.9256.4255147
X-BandDownlink7.2507.7504139
Uplink7.9008.4003836
Ku-BandDownlink10.00013.0003023
Uplink14.00017.0002118
K-Band18.00026.5001711
Ka-BandnDownlink18.00021.0001714
Uplink27.00031.0001110

Figure 3.40 – SATCOM frequency bands

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Mar 13, 2023
LoRaWAN network topology – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Notice that, unlike Wi-Fi, LoRaWAN inserts gateways as intermediaries between the devices and the network. While some large enterprise Wi-Fi networks have a similar topology, it is something manufacturers bolted on later for scale-related reasons and is not part of the original 802.11x specification.

With Wi-Fi, a device is only ever associated with one access point at a time, and when they move around, their session is cut over between them. LoRaWAN, on the other hand, sends its traffic to all of the gateways it can see simultaneously. If the server needs to send a message back to the device, it will choose the best gateway to use for that purpose:

Figure 3.36 – LoRaWAN network topology

This architecture is known as star-on-star. It yields advantages that are relevant to typical LoRaWAN use cases:

Redundancy: If a gateway fails or needs to be taken offline for maintenance, devices in the network are not affected.

Affordability: Because this form of redundancy is a fundamental part of the LoRaWAN specification, it is cheaper to implement both in terms of hardware and deployment effort.

Scalability: The number of gateways a network server can manage is limited only by the processing power of that server. When that is exhausted, additional servers can be added to scale the system horizontally. There are LoRaWAN networks with 40,000 gateways that support many millions of devices 15.

15 https://www.thethingsnetwork.org/map

Direct communication between devices

The LoRaWAN protocol does not support direct communication between end nodes. This can be confusing because LoRaWAN-capable devices exist that communicate without involving the gateways. However, this is done using a different protocol such as RadioHead16 or something proprietary to that manufacturer.

16 https://www.airspayce.com/mikem/arduino/RadioHead/

Geolocation

All battery-powered LoRaWAN devices such as tags or sensors can move while they are communicating without increasing the power budget. Additionally, it is not always practical to track physical coordinates when deploying stationary devices.

Fortunately, the LoRaWAN protocol provides two inbuilt methods for determining the position of devices. Nothing needs to be added to existing LoRaWAN-capable endpoints for these to work, making it a lower-cost alternative to adding GNSS to all devices. In some cases, even when the devices do have GNSS positioning, LoRaWAN geolocation is used as a check on that position:

Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI): This measures the received signal power in milliwatts, and is measured in dBm. This method works for coarse positioning in the 1,000-to-2,000-meter range.

Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA): Each gateway must have a tightly synchronized time source for this method. Usually, this is obtained from a GNSS network such as GPS. The network server converts the timestamp of when messages were received by each gateway into a distance. It then plots those distances and estimates the devices’ location at the intersection. If a device can reach three or more gateways, its position can be calculated to be between 20 and 200 meters.

Regardless of which method is used, a good rule of thumb is that rural deployments will see accuracies toward the lower end of the range while accuracy in urban environments will be toward the higher end. Both methods will benefit from higher gateway density.

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Nov 26, 2022
WiFi and MIMO – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

As discussed previously, MIMO is a method for increasing effective throughput by deliberately exploiting multipath propagation. The different generations of WiFi make use of this in varying ways.

802.11n (Wi-Fi-4)

This supported the more limited Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO). As its name suggests, SU-MIMO means the access point can only be sent to one client at a time.

802.11ac (Wi-Fi-5)

This added MU-MIMO (d). The (d) stands for downlink. With MU-MIMO (d), only one station can transmit, but multiple stations can receive at any given time.

802.11ax (Wi-Fi-6)

This was extended to MU-MIMO (u/d). Now, multiple devices can both transmit and receive simultaneously.

MU-OFDMA

Basic OFDM has been supported since 802.11a (Wi-Fi-2). 802.11ax (Wi-Fi-6) has extended this to now support multiple users.

You could think of the older style of OFDM as a sequence of trucks, each delivering boxes from one vendor at a set time every day. MU-OFDMA allows each truck to be loaded with multiple vendor’s boxes. It also allows the delivery schedule of those trucks to happen only when there’s a full load.

Older Wi-Fi specifications were designed for web browsing and checking email. Congestion emerged as video streaming, AR/VR, and gaming became common. This, combined with more and more client devices transmitting at the same time, meant that the queuing caused by simple OFDM increased latency.

Perhaps most importantly, MU-OFDMA allows priorities to be set not only per client but per protocol/traffic type. In other words, the access point could prioritize video streaming at one level, IoT messages at another, and mission-critical VOIP at the highest.

802.11p (DSRC)

An amendment to the broader IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN) standard, 802.11p is tailored for high-speed, short-range communication in a vehicular environment. The standard operates in the 5.9 GHz frequency band and utilizes the Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) protocol to ensure low latency and reliable data exchange.

The primary advantage of DSRC over 4G/LTE or 5G for V2X is that it can provide some value in the absence of any infrastructure. If two V2X-equipped cars come within range of each other, they will exchange information in a peer-to-peer fashion. This would function even in the middle of the Sahara.

In 2016, Toyota became the first automaker to introduce cars equipped with V2X systems, followed by GM in 2017. Both of these used DSRC as opposed to 4G/LTE or 5G. While DSRC was the first standard the automotive industry adopted, that is changing for several reasons. Compared to 4G/LTE or 5G for V2X, DSRC suffers from the following limitations:

Limited capacity and scalability: DSRC operates in a narrow frequency band (5.9GHz), which limits its capacity to support a high number of simultaneous connections in dense traffic scenarios. 5G offers broader bandwidth and improved spectral efficiency, allowing it to handle more devices and users concurrently.

Lower data rates: DSRC offers lower data rates compared to 5G, which hinders its ability to support advanced V2X applications that require higher throughput, such as high-definition video streaming for autonomous vehicles. 5G, with its enhanced data rates, can better accommodate these demanding use cases.

Latency: Although DSRC provides relatively low latency communication, 5G has the potential to achieve even lower latencies, especially with the implementation of 5G Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication (URLLC). URLLC can enable mission-critical applications and real-time control systems that demand near-instantaneous response times.

Network slicing: 5G supports network slicing, a feature that allows the creation of virtual networks tailored to specific use cases or applications. This enables the allocation of dedicated resources for V2X communications, ensuring the desired performance levels. DSRC, on the other hand, does not offer this level of customization and flexibility.

Global harmonization: While DSRC has been adopted in some regions, it has not achieved global harmonization, leading to inconsistencies in spectrum allocation and regulation across different countries. 5G has a more unified approach, with global standardization and broader adoption, making it more attractive for V2X implementations across various regions.

Keeping all of this in mind, automakers have begun to include both in their chipsets. The idea is that cellular networks are the primary communication path, and when those are not available, the chipset will leverage DSRC for peer-to-peer vehicle communication when and where it can.

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Jul 24, 2022
Optimizing Wi-Fi (802.11x)-based connectivity – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

Wi-Fi was designed to allow laptops, smartphones, and tablets to connect to the internet and/or communicate with each other on a local area network (LAN). It uses RF to transmit data over relatively short distances, typically within a home or office – although permutations intended for outdoor use are becoming more common.

Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, which operate at Layer 1 of the OSI model (physical). Introduced in the late 1990s, it was the first commercially successful wireless networking technology that was designed to work seamlessly with Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) – which almost all LANs use at Layer 2.

Wi-Fi-1 through Wi-Fi-6

The following table shows us the comparison of 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax:

   802.11 (b) Wi-Fi-1802.11 (a) Wi-Fi-2802.11 (g) Wi-Fi-3802.11 (n) Wi-Fi-4802.11 (ac) Wi-Fi-5802.11 (ax) Wi-Fi-6
Max Speed11 Mbps54 Mbps54 Mbps600 Mbps10 10 Requires the use of vendor-specific proprietary beamforming/spatial streams.1.3 Gbps11 11 Refers to per-station throughput. The whole network theoretical maximum is 6.9 Gbps.1.7 Gbps12 12 Refers to per-station throughput. The whole network theoretical maximum is 9.6 Gbps.
Range Indoor (2.4)35 mN/A45 m60 mN/A60 m
Range Indoor (5)N/A30 m30 m45 m45 m45 m
Range Outdoor (2.4)70 mN/A90 m120 mN/A120 m
Range Outdoor (5)N/A60 m75 m90 m90 m90 m
2.4 GHz BandYesNoYesYesNoYes
5 GHz BandNoYesYesYesYesYes
OFDMNoYesYesYesYesYes
MU-OFDMANoNoNoNoNoYes
SU-MIMONoNoNoYesYes8×8
MU-MIMO (d)NoNoNoNo4×48×8
MU-MIMO (u/d)NoNoNoNoNo8×8
Spatial StreamsNoNoNoNo48

Figure 3.29 – Comparison of 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax

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May 19, 2022
Narrow-Band IoT (NB-IoT) – Understanding Network and Security for Far-Edge Computing

NB-IoT is a specification devised by 3GPP that defines a low-powered WAN (LPWAN) technology that rides on top of existing 4G/LTE and 5GC networks. It is meant to provide a lower cost level of service for IoT devices that do not need the full throughput of an MNO’s standard 4G/LTE or 5G data service offering.

Because it piggybacks on top of existing mobile networks, it shares the same licensed frequency spectrum, and normally the same cell towers/antennas. However, at a signal level, it functions a bit differently. The specification limits each device to a maximum of 200KHz of bandwidth. Contrast this with 4G/LTE, which can have 20MHz channels, and 5G, which can go as high as 400MHz, and the reason it is called “narrow-band” becomes evident. An MNO can support as many as 100 NB-IoT devices using the same amount of bandwidth needed to support a single 4G/LTE phone using a 20MHz channel.

How much throughput an NB-IoT device can squeeze out of that 200KHz channel depends on the version. 3GPP Release 17 was published in 2022 and specifies the latest revision, known as NB-IoT Enhanced. This version specifies a maximum throughput of 250 kbps down and 20 kbps up. It achieves this by using TDD to time-slice the transmit phase as FDMA and the receive phase as OFDMA.

Another difference is that NB-IoT is typically deployed using the guard band slots of an MNO’s network. While this is not always true, it is important to ask your MNO whether they deploy NB-IoT using “in-band mode” or “guard-band mode” as the latter will inevitably suffer from a higher signal-to-noise ratio than you could expect from an NB-IoT channel provisioned in a standard slot. Guard bands exist for a reason. At the time of writing, few NB-IoT offerings do not use guard-band mode:

Figure 3.28 – NB-IoT-capable pressure sensor

In most other ways, NB-IoT works like any 4G/LTE or 5G mobile device. Each device needs a SIM (although eSIMs are becoming the standard) to access the MNO’s network. Each device is also paired with one cell tower/radio at a time. Finally, the connection is synchronous, which means it is constantly on, regardless of whether the device has data to send or receive.

The narrowness of the band allows the MNO to charge less for the service, but it also means NB-IoT devices need less power for the transceiver than if they were using standard 4G/LTE or 5G. However, because of the synchronous connection, NB-IoT devices as a rule consume more power than LPWAN technologies that use an asynchronous connection model.

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